Leshem Choshen


2024

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Data Contamination Report from the 2024 CONDA Shared Task
Oscar Sainz | Iker García-Ferrero | Alon Jacovi | Jon Ander Campos | Yanai Elazar | Eneko Agirre | Yoav Goldberg | Wei-Lin Chen | Jenny Chim | Leshem Choshen | Luca D’Amico-Wong | Melissa Dell | Run-Ze Fan | Shahriar Golchin | Yucheng Li | Pengfei Liu | Bhavish Pahwa | Ameya Prabhu | Suryansh Sharma | Emily Silcock | Kateryna Solonko | David Stap | Mihai Surdeanu | Yu-Min Tseng | Vishaal Udandarao | Zengzhi Wang | Ruijie Xu | Jinglin Yang
Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Data Contamination (CONDA)

The 1st Workshop on Data Contamination (CONDA 2024) focuses on all relevant aspects of data contamination in natural language processing, where data contamination is understood as situations where evaluation data is included in pre-training corpora used to train large scale models, compromising evaluation results. The workshop fostered a shared task to collect evidence on data contamination in current available datasets and models. The goal of the shared task and associated database is to assist the community in understanding the extent of the problem and to assist researchers in avoiding reporting evaluation results on known contaminated resources. The shared task provides a structured, centralized public database for the collection of contamination evidence, open to contributions from the community via GitHub pool requests. This first compilation paper is based on 566 reported entries over 91 contaminated sources from a total of 23 contributors. The details of the individual contamination events are available in the platform. The platform continues to be online, open to contributions from the community.

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Efficient Benchmarking (of Language Models)
Yotam Perlitz | Elron Bandel | Ariel Gera | Ofir Arviv | Liat Ein-Dor | Eyal Shnarch | Noam Slonim | Michal Shmueli-Scheuer | Leshem Choshen
Proceedings of the 2024 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (Volume 1: Long Papers)

The increasing versatility of language models (LMs) has given rise to a new class of benchmarks that comprehensively assess a broad range of capabilities. Such benchmarks are associated with massive computational costs, extending to thousands of GPU hours per model. However, the efficiency aspect of these evaluation efforts had raised little discussion in the literature.In this work, we present the problem of Efficient Benchmarking, namely, intelligently reducing the computation costs of LM evaluation without compromising reliability. Using the HELM benchmark as a test case, we investigate how different benchmark design choices affect the computation-reliability trade-off. We propose to evaluate the reliability of such decisions, by using a new measure – Decision Impact on Reliability, DIoR for short.We find, for example, that a benchmark leader may change by merely removing a low-ranked model from the benchmark, and observe that a correct benchmark ranking can be obtained by considering only a fraction of the evaluation examples.Based on our findings, we outline a set of concrete recommendations for efficient benchmark design and utilization practices. To take a step further, we use our findings to propose an evaluation algorithm, that, when applied to the HELM benchmark, leads to dramatic cost savings with minimal loss of benchmark reliability, often reducing computation by x100 or more.

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Unitxt: Flexible, Shareable and Reusable Data Preparation and Evaluation for Generative AI
Elron Bandel | Yotam Perlitz | Elad Venezian | Roni Friedman | Ofir Arviv | Matan Orbach | Shachar Don-Yehiya | Dafna Sheinwald | Ariel Gera | Leshem Choshen | Michal Shmueli-Scheuer | Yoav Katz
Proceedings of the 2024 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (Volume 3: System Demonstrations)

In the dynamic landscape of generative NLP, traditional text processing pipelines limit research flexibility and reproducibility, as they are tailored to specific dataset, task, and model combinations. The escalating complexity, involving system prompts, model-specific formats, instructions, and more, calls for a shift to a structured, modular, and customizable solution.Addressing this need, we present Unitxt, an innovative library for customizable textual data preparation and evaluation tailored to generative language models. Unitxt natively integrates with common libraries like HuggingFace and LM-eval-harness and deconstructs processing flows into modular components, enabling easy customization and sharing between practitioners. These components encompass model-specific formats, task prompts, and many other comprehensive dataset processing definitions. The Unitxt Catalog centralizes these components, fostering collaboration and exploration in modern textual data workflows. Beyond being a tool, Unitxt is a community-driven platform, empowering users to build, share, and advance their pipelines collaboratively. Join the Unitxt community at https://github.com/IBM/unitxt

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Deductive Closure Training of Language Models for Coherence, Accuracy, and Updatability
Afra Feyza Akyürek | Ekin Akyürek | Leshem Choshen | Derry Wijaya | Jacob Andreas
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics ACL 2024

While language models (LMs) can sometimes generate factually correct text and estimate truth values of individual claims, these generally do not reflect a globally coherent, manipulable model of the world. As a consequence, current LMs also generate incorrect or nonsensical content, and are difficult to edit and bring up to date. We present a method called Deductive Closure Training (DCT) that uses LMs themselves to identify implications of (and contradictions within) the text that they generate, yielding an efficient self-supervised procedure for improving LM factuality. Given a collection of seed documents, DCT prompts LMs to generate additional text implied by these documents, reason globally about the correctness of this generated text, and finally fine-tune on text inferred to be correct. Given seed documents from a trusted source, DCT provides a tool for supervised model updating; if seed documents are sampled from the LM itself, DCT enables fully unsupervised fine-tuning for improved coherence and accuracy. Across the CREAK, MQuAKE, and Reversal Curse datasets, supervised DCT improves LM fact verification and text generation accuracy by 3-26%; on CREAK, fully unsupervised DCT improves verification accuracy by 12%. These results show that LMs’ reasoning capabilities during inference can be leveraged during training to improve their reliability.

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Jump to Conclusions: Short-Cutting Transformers with Linear Transformations
Alexander Yom Din | Taelin Karidi | Leshem Choshen | Mor Geva
Proceedings of the 2024 Joint International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC-COLING 2024)

Transformer-based language models create hidden representations of their inputs at every layer, but only use final-layer representations for prediction. This obscures the internal decision-making process of the model and the utility of its intermediate representations. One way to elucidate this is to cast the hidden representations as final representations, bypassing the transformer computation in-between. In this work, we suggest a simple method for such casting, using linear transformations. This approximation far exceeds the prevailing practice of inspecting hidden representations from all layers, in the space of the final layer. Moreover, in the context of language modeling, our method produces more accurate predictions from hidden layers, across various model scales, architectures, and data distributions. This allows “peeking” into intermediate representations, showing that GPT-2 and BERT often predict the final output already in early layers. We then demonstrate the practicality of our method to recent early exit strategies, showing that when aiming, for example, at retention of 95% accuracy, our approach saves additional 7.9% layers for GPT-2 and 5.4% layers for BERT. Last, we extend our method to linearly approximate sub-modules, finding that attention is most tolerant to this change. Our code and learned mappings are publicly available at https://github.com/sashayd/mat.

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Navigating the Modern Evaluation Landscape: Considerations in Benchmarks and Frameworks for Large Language Models (LLMs)
Leshem Choshen | Ariel Gera | Yotam Perlitz | Michal Shmueli-Scheuer | Gabriel Stanovsky
Proceedings of the 2024 Joint International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC-COLING 2024): Tutorial Summaries

General-Purpose Language Models have changed the world of Natural Language Processing, if not the world itself. The evaluation of such versatile models, while supposedly similar to evaluation of generation models before them, in fact presents a host of new evaluation challenges and opportunities. In this Tutorial, we will start from the building blocks of evaluation. The tutorial welcomes people from diverse backgrounds and assumes little familiarity with metrics, datasets, prompts and benchmarks. It will lay the foundations and explain the basics and their importance, while touching on the major points and breakthroughs of the recent era of evaluation. It will also compare traditional evaluation methods – which are still widely used – to newly developed methods. We will contrast new to old approaches, from evaluating on many-task benchmarks rather than on dedicated datasets to efficiency constraints, and from testing stability and prompts on in-context learning to using the models themselves as evaluation metrics. Finally, the tutorial will cover practical issues, ranging from reviewing widely-used benchmarks and prompt banks to efficient evaluation.

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Label-Efficient Model Selection for Text Generation
Shir Ashury Tahan | Ariel Gera | Benjamin Sznajder | Leshem Choshen | Liat Ein-Dor | Eyal Shnarch
Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Model selection for a given target task can be costly, as it may entail extensive annotation of the quality of outputs of different models. We introduce DiffUse, an efficient method to make an informed decision between candidate text generation models based on preference annotations. DiffUse reduces the required amount of annotations, thus saving valuable time and resources in performing evaluation.DiffUse intelligently selects instances by clustering embeddings that represent the semantic differences between model outputs. Thus, it is able to identify a subset of examples that are more informative for preference decisions. Our method is model-agnostic, and can be applied to any text generation model for selecting between models, prompts and configurations. Moreover, we propose a practical iterative approach for dynamically determining how many instances to annotate. In a series of experiments over hundreds of model pairs, we demonstrate that DiffUse can dramatically reduce the required number of annotations – by up to 75% – while maintaining high evaluation reliability.

2023

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Knowledge is a Region in Weight Space for Fine-tuned Language Models
Almog Gueta | Elad Venezian | Colin Raffel | Noam Slonim | Yoav Katz | Leshem Choshen
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2023

Research on neural networks has focused on understanding a single model trained on a single dataset. However, relatively little is known about the relationships between different models, particularly those trained or tested on different datasets. We address this by studying how the weight space and the underlying loss landscape of different models are interconnected. Specifically, we demonstrate that finetuned models that were optimized for high performance, reside in well-defined regions in weight space, and vice versa – that any model that resides anywhere in those regions also exhibits high performance. Notably, we show that language models that have been finetuned on the same dataset form a tight cluster in the weight space, while models finetuned on different datasets from the same underlying task form a looser cluster. Moreover, traversing around the region between the models leads to new models that perform comparably or even better than models obtained via finetuning, even on tasks that the original models were not finetuned on. Our findings provide insight into the relationships between models, demonstrating that a model positioned between two similar models can acquire the knowledge of both. We leverage this and design a method for selecting a better model for efficient finetuning. Specifically, we show that starting from the center of the region is as effective, if not more, than using the pretrained model in 11 out of 12 datasets, resulting in an average accuracy improvement of 3.06.

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Where to start? Analyzing the potential value of intermediate models
Leshem Choshen | Elad Venezian | Shachar Don-Yehiya | Noam Slonim | Yoav Katz
Proceedings of the 2023 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

Previous studies observed that finetuned models may be better base models than the vanilla pretrained model. Such a model, finetuned on some source dataset, may provide a better starting point for a new finetuning process on a desired target dataset. Here, we perform a systematic analysis of this intertraining scheme, over a wide range of English classification tasks. Surprisingly, our analysis suggests that the potential intertraining gain can be analyzed independently for the target dataset under consideration, and for a base model being considered as a starting point. Hence, a performant model is generally strong, even if its training data was not aligned with the target dataset. Furthermore, we leverage our analysis to propose a practical and efficient approach to determine if and how to select a base model in real-world settings. Last, we release an updating ranking of best models in the HuggingFace hub per architecture.

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Human Learning by Model Feedback: The Dynamics of Iterative Prompting with Midjourney
Shachar Don-Yehiya | Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 2023 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

Generating images with a Text-to-Image model often requires multiple trials, where human users iteratively update their prompt based on feedback, namely the output image. Taking inspiration from cognitive work on reference games and dialogue alignment, this paper analyzes the dynamics of the user prompts along such iterations. We compile a dataset of iterative interactions of human users with Midjourney. Our analysis then reveals that prompts predictably converge toward specific traits along these iterations. We further study whether this convergence is due to human users, realizing they missed important details, or due to adaptation to the model’s “preferences”, producing better images for a specific language style. We show initial evidence that both possibilities are at play. The possibility that users adapt to the model’s preference raises concerns about reusing user data for further training. The prompts may be biased towards the preferences of a specific model, rather than align with human intentions and natural manner of expression.

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ColD Fusion: Collaborative Descent for Distributed Multitask Finetuning
Shachar Don-Yehiya | Elad Venezian | Colin Raffel | Noam Slonim | Leshem Choshen
Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Pretraining has been shown to scale well with compute, data size and data diversity. Multitask learning trains on a mixture of supervised datasets and produces improved performance compared to self-supervised pretraining. Until now, massively multitask learning required simultaneous access to all datasets in the mixture and heavy compute resources that are only available to well-resourced teams. In this paper, we propose ColD Fusion, a method that provides the benefits of multitask learning but leverages distributed computation and requires limited communication and no sharing of data. Consequentially, ColD Fusion can create a synergistic loop, where finetuned models can be recycled to continually improve the pretrained model they are based on. We show that ColD Fusion yields comparable benefits to multitask training by producing a model that (a) attains strong performance on all of the datasets it was multitask trained on and (b) is a better starting point for finetuning on unseen datasets. We find ColD Fusion outperforms RoBERTa and even previous multitask models. Specifically, when training and testing on 35 diverse datasets, ColD Fusion-based model outperforms RoBERTa by 2.19 points on average without any changes to the architecture.

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DisentQA: Disentangling Parametric and Contextual Knowledge with Counterfactual Question Answering
Ella Neeman | Roee Aharoni | Or Honovich | Leshem Choshen | Idan Szpektor | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Question answering models commonly have access to two sources of “knowledge” during inference time: (1) parametric knowledge - the factual knowledge encoded in the model weights, and (2) contextual knowledge - external knowledge (e.g., a Wikipedia passage) given to the model to generate a grounded answer. Having these two sources of knowledge entangled together is a core issue for generative QA models as it is unclear whether the answer stems from the given non-parametric knowledge or not. This unclarity has implications on issues of trust, interpretability and factuality. In this work, we propose a new paradigm in which QA models are trained to disentangle the two sources of knowledge. Using counterfactual data augmentation, we introduce a model that predicts two answers for a given question: one based on given contextual knowledge and one based on parametric knowledge. Our experiments on the Natural Questions dataset show that this approach improves the performance of QA models by making them more robust to knowledge conflicts between the two knowledge sources, while generating useful disentangled answers.

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MuLER: Detailed and Scalable Reference-based Evaluation
Taelin Karidi | Leshem Choshen | Gal Patel | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning (CoNLL)

We propose a novel methodology (namely, MuLER) that transforms any reference-based evaluation metric for text generation, such as machine translation (MT) into a fine-grained analysis tool. Given a system and a metric, MuLER quantifies how much the chosen metric penalizes specific error types (e.g., errors in translating names of locations). MuLER thus enables a detailed error analysis which can lead to targeted improvement efforts for specific phenomena. We perform experiments in both synthetic and naturalistic settings to support MuLER’s validity and showcase its usability in MT evaluation, and other tasks, such as summarization. Analyzing all submissions to WMT in 2014-2020, we find consistent trends. For example, nouns and verbs are among the most frequent POS tags. However, they are among the hardest to translate. Performance on most POS tags improves with overall system performance, but a few are not thus correlated (their identity changes from language to language). Preliminary experiments with summarization reveal similar trends.

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Proceedings of the BabyLM Challenge at the 27th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning
Alex Warstadt | Aaron Mueller | Leshem Choshen | Ethan Wilcox | Chengxu Zhuang | Juan Ciro | Rafael Mosquera | Bhargavi Paranjabe | Adina Williams | Tal Linzen | Ryan Cotterell
Proceedings of the BabyLM Challenge at the 27th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning

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Findings of the BabyLM Challenge: Sample-Efficient Pretraining on Developmentally Plausible Corpora
Alex Warstadt | Aaron Mueller | Leshem Choshen | Ethan Wilcox | Chengxu Zhuang | Juan Ciro | Rafael Mosquera | Bhargavi Paranjabe | Adina Williams | Tal Linzen | Ryan Cotterell
Proceedings of the BabyLM Challenge at the 27th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning

2022

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GrASP: A Library for Extracting and Exploring Human-Interpretable Textual Patterns
Piyawat Lertvittayakumjorn | Leshem Choshen | Eyal Shnarch | Francesca Toni
Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference

Data exploration is an important step of every data science and machine learning project, including those involving textual data. We provide a novel language tool, in the form of a publicly available Python library for extracting patterns from textual data. The library integrates a first public implementation of the existing GrASP algorithm. It allows users to extract patterns using a number of general-purpose built-in linguistic attributes (such as hypernyms, part-of-speech tags, and syntactic dependency tags), as envisaged for the original algorithm, as well as domain-specific custom attributes which can be incorporated into the library by implementing two functions. The library is equipped with a web-based interface empowering human users to conveniently explore data via the extracted patterns, using complementary pattern-centric and example-centric views: the former includes a reading in natural language and statistics of each extracted pattern; the latter shows applications of each extracted pattern to training examples. We demonstrate the usefulness of the library in classification (spam detection and argument mining), model analysis (machine translation), and artifact discovery in datasets (SNLI and 20Newsgroups).

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PreQuEL: Quality Estimation of Machine Translation Outputs in Advance
Shachar Don-Yehiya | Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

We present the task of PreQuEL, Pre-(Quality-Estimation) Learning. A PreQuEL system predicts how well a given sentence will be translated, without recourse to the actual translation, thus eschewing unnecessary resource allocation when translation quality is bound to be low. PreQuEL can be defined relative to a given MT system (e.g., some industry service) or generally relative to the state-of-the-art.From a theoretical perspective, PreQuEL places the focus on the source text, tracing properties, possibly linguistic features, that make a sentence harder to machine translate.We develop a baseline model for the task and analyze its performance. We also develop a data augmentation method (from parallel corpora), that improves results substantially. We show that this augmentation method can improve the performance of the Quality-Estimation task as well.We investigate the properties of the input text that our model is sensitive to, by testing it on challenge sets and different languages. We conclude that it is aware of syntactic and semantic distinctions, and correlates and even over-emphasizes the importance of standard NLP features.

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Label Sleuth: From Unlabeled Text to a Classifier in a Few Hours
Eyal Shnarch | Alon Halfon | Ariel Gera | Marina Danilevsky | Yannis Katsis | Leshem Choshen | Martin Santillan Cooper | Dina Epelboim | Zheng Zhang | Dakuo Wang
Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing: System Demonstrations

Label Sleuth is an open source platform for building text classifiers which does not require coding skills nor machine learning knowledge.- Project website: [https://www.label-sleuth.org/](https://www.label-sleuth.org/)- Link to screencast video: [https://vimeo.com/735675461](https://vimeo.com/735675461)### AbstractText classification can be useful in many real-world scenarios, saving a lot of time for end users. However, building a classifier generally requires coding skills and ML knowledge, which poses a significant barrier for many potential users. To lift this barrier we introduce *Label Sleuth*, a free open source system for labeling and creating text classifiers. This system is unique for: - being a no-code system, making NLP accessible for non-experts. - guiding its users throughout the entire labeling process until they obtain their desired classifier, making the process efficient - from cold start to a classifier in a few hours. - being open for configuration and extension by developers. By open sourcing Label Sleuth we hope to build a community of users and developers that will widen the utilization of NLP models.

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On Neurons Invariant to Sentence Structural Changes in Neural Machine Translation
Gal Patel | Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 26th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning (CoNLL)

We present a methodology that explores how sentence structure is reflected in neural representations of machine translation systems. We demonstrate our model-agnostic approach with the Transformer English-German translation model. We analyze neuron-level correlation of activations between paraphrases while discussing the methodology challenges and the need for confound analysis to isolate the effects of shallow cues. We find that similarity between activation patterns can be mostly accounted for by similarity in word choice and sentence length. Following that, we manipulate neuron activations to control the syntactic form of the output. We show this intervention to be somewhat successful, indicating that deep models capture sentence-structure distinctions, despite finding no such indication at the neuron level. To conduct our experiments, we develop a semi-automatic method to generate meaning-preserving minimal pair paraphrases (active-passive voice and adverbial clause-noun phrase) and compile a corpus of such pairs.

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Enhancing the Transformer Decoder with Transition-based Syntax
Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 26th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning (CoNLL)

Notwithstanding recent advances, syntactic generalization remains a challenge for text decoders. While some studies showed gains from incorporating source-side symbolic syntactic and semantic structure into text generation Transformers, very little work addressed the decoding of such structure. We propose a general approach for tree decoding using a transition-based approach. Examining the challenging test case of incorporating Universal Dependencies syntax into machine translation, we present substantial improvements on test sets that focus on syntactic generalization, while presenting improved or comparable performance on standard MT benchmarks. Further qualitative analysis addresses cases where syntactic generalization in the vanilla Transformer decoder is inadequate and demonstrates the advantages afforded by integrating syntactic information.

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Cluster & Tune: Boost Cold Start Performance in Text Classification
Eyal Shnarch | Ariel Gera | Alon Halfon | Lena Dankin | Leshem Choshen | Ranit Aharonov | Noam Slonim
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

In real-world scenarios, a text classification task often begins with a cold start, when labeled data is scarce. In such cases, the common practice of fine-tuning pre-trained models, such as BERT, for a target classification task, is prone to produce poor performance. We suggest a method to boost the performance of such models by adding an intermediate unsupervised classification task, between the pre-training and fine-tuning phases. As such an intermediate task, we perform clustering and train the pre-trained model on predicting the cluster labels. We test this hypothesis on various data sets, and show that this additional classification phase can significantly improve performance, mainly for topical classification tasks, when the number of labeled instances available for fine-tuning is only a couple of dozen to a few hundred.

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The Grammar-Learning Trajectories of Neural Language Models
Leshem Choshen | Guy Hacohen | Daphna Weinshall | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

The learning trajectories of linguistic phenomena in humans provide insight into linguistic representation, beyond what can be gleaned from inspecting the behavior of an adult speaker. To apply a similar approach to analyze neural language models (NLM), it is first necessary to establish that different models are similar enough in the generalizations they make. In this paper, we show that NLMs with different initialization, architecture, and training data acquire linguistic phenomena in a similar order, despite their different end performance. These findings suggest that there is some mutual inductive bias that underlies these models’ learning of linguistic phenomena. Taking inspiration from psycholinguistics, we argue that studying this inductive bias is an opportunity to study the linguistic representation implicit in NLMs.Leveraging these findings, we compare the relative performance on different phenomena at varying learning stages with simpler reference models. Results suggest that NLMs exhibit consistent “developmental” stages. Moreover, we find the learning trajectory to be approximately one-dimensional: given an NLM with a certain overall performance, it is possible to predict what linguistic generalizations it has already acquired. Initial analysis of these stages presents phenomena clusters (notably morphological ones), whose performance progresses in unison, suggesting a potential link between the generalizations behind them.

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Reinforcement Learning with Large Action Spaces for Neural Machine Translation
Asaf Yehudai | Leshem Choshen | Lior Fox | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Computational Linguistics

Applying Reinforcement learning (RL) following maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) pre-training is a versatile method for enhancing neural machine translation (NMT) performance. However, recent work has argued that the gains produced by RL for NMT are mostly due to promoting tokens that have already received a fairly high probability in pre-training. We hypothesize that the large action space is a main obstacle to RL’s effectiveness in MT, and conduct two sets of experiments that lend support to our hypothesis. First, we find that reducing the size of the vocabulary improves RL’s effectiveness. Second, we find that effectively reducing the dimension of the action space without changing the vocabulary also yields notable improvement as evaluated by BLEU, semantic similarity, and human evaluation. Indeed, by initializing the network’s final fully connected layer (that maps the network’s internal dimension to the vocabulary dimension), with a layer that generalizes over similar actions, we obtain a substantial improvement in RL performance: 1.5 BLEU points on average.

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Semantics-aware Attention Improves Neural Machine Translation
Aviv Slobodkin | Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 11th Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics

The integration of syntactic structures into Transformer machine translation has shown positive results, but to our knowledge, no work has attempted to do so with semantic structures. In this work we propose two novel parameter-free methods for injecting semantic information into Transformers, both rely on semantics-aware masking of (some of) the attention heads. One such method operates on the encoder, through a Scene-Aware Self-Attention (SASA) head. Another on the decoder, through a Scene-Aware Cross-Attention (SACrA) head. We show a consistent improvement over the vanilla Transformer and syntax-aware models for four language pairs. We further show an additional gain when using both semantic and syntactic structures in some language pairs.

2021

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Mediators in Determining what Processing BERT Performs First
Aviv Slobodkin | Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 2021 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies

Probing neural models for the ability to perform downstream tasks using their activation patterns is often used to localize what parts of the network specialize in performing what tasks. However, little work addressed potential mediating factors in such comparisons. As a test-case mediating factor, we consider the prediction’s context length, namely the length of the span whose processing is minimally required to perform the prediction. We show that not controlling for context length may lead to contradictory conclusions as to the localization patterns of the network, depending on the distribution of the probing dataset. Indeed, when probing BERT with seven tasks, we find that it is possible to get 196 different rankings between them when manipulating the distribution of context lengths in the probing dataset. We conclude by presenting best practices for conducting such comparisons in the future.

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Q2: Evaluating Factual Consistency in Knowledge-Grounded Dialogues via Question Generation and Question Answering
Or Honovich | Leshem Choshen | Roee Aharoni | Ella Neeman | Idan Szpektor | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

Neural knowledge-grounded generative models for dialogue often produce content that is factually inconsistent with the knowledge they rely on, making them unreliable and limiting their applicability. Inspired by recent work on evaluating factual consistency in abstractive summarization, we propose an automatic evaluation metric for factual consistency in knowledge-grounded dialogue using automatic question generation and question answering. Our metric, denoted Q2, compares answer spans using natural language inference (NLI), instead of token-based matching as done in previous work. To foster proper evaluation, we curate a novel dataset of dialogue system outputs for the Wizard-of-Wikipedia dataset, manually annotated for factual consistency. We perform a thorough meta-evaluation of Q2 against other metrics using this dataset and two others, where it consistently shows higher correlation with human judgements.

2020

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Unsupervised Expressive Rules Provide Explainability and Assist Human Experts Grasping New Domains
Eyal Shnarch | Leshem Choshen | Guy Moshkowich | Ranit Aharonov | Noam Slonim
Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2020

Approaching new data can be quite deterrent; you do not know how your categories of interest are realized in it, commonly, there is no labeled data at hand, and the performance of domain adaptation methods is unsatisfactory. Aiming to assist domain experts in their first steps into a new task over a new corpus, we present an unsupervised approach to reveal complex rules which cluster the unexplored corpus by its prominent categories (or facets). These rules are human-readable, thus providing an important ingredient which has become in short supply lately - explainability. Each rule provides an explanation for the commonality of all the texts it clusters together. The experts can then identify which rules best capture texts of their categories of interest, and utilize them to deepen their understanding of these categories. These rules can also bootstrap the process of data labeling by pointing at a subset of the corpus which is enriched with texts demonstrating the target categories. We present an extensive evaluation of the usefulness of these rules in identifying target categories, as well as a user study which assesses their interpretability.

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Classifying Syntactic Errors in Learner Language
Leshem Choshen | Dmitry Nikolaev | Yevgeni Berzak | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 24th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning

We present a method for classifying syntactic errors in learner language, namely errors whose correction alters the morphosyntactic structure of a sentence. The methodology builds on the established Universal Dependencies syntactic representation scheme, and provides complementary information to other error-classification systems. Unlike existing error classification methods, our method is applicable across languages, which we showcase by producing a detailed picture of syntactic errors in learner English and learner Russian. We further demonstrate the utility of the methodology for analyzing the outputs of leading Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) systems.

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Active Learning for BERT: An Empirical Study
Liat Ein-Dor | Alon Halfon | Ariel Gera | Eyal Shnarch | Lena Dankin | Leshem Choshen | Marina Danilevsky | Ranit Aharonov | Yoav Katz | Noam Slonim
Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)

Real world scenarios present a challenge for text classification, since labels are usually expensive and the data is often characterized by class imbalance. Active Learning (AL) is a ubiquitous paradigm to cope with data scarcity. Recently, pre-trained NLP models, and BERT in particular, are receiving massive attention due to their outstanding performance in various NLP tasks. However, the use of AL with deep pre-trained models has so far received little consideration. Here, we present a large-scale empirical study on active learning techniques for BERT-based classification, addressing a diverse set of AL strategies and datasets. We focus on practical scenarios of binary text classification, where the annotation budget is very small, and the data is often skewed. Our results demonstrate that AL can boost BERT performance, especially in the most realistic scenario in which the initial set of labeled examples is created using keyword-based queries, resulting in a biased sample of the minority class. We release our research framework, aiming to facilitate future research along the lines explored here.

2019

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SemEval-2019 Task 1: Cross-lingual Semantic Parsing with UCCA
Daniel Hershcovich | Zohar Aizenbud | Leshem Choshen | Elior Sulem | Ari Rappoport | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 13th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation

We present the SemEval 2019 shared task on Universal Conceptual Cognitive Annotation (UCCA) parsing in English, German and French, and discuss the participating systems and results. UCCA is a cross-linguistically applicable framework for semantic representation, which builds on extensive typological work and supports rapid annotation. UCCA poses a challenge for existing parsing techniques, as it exhibits reentrancy (resulting in DAG structures), discontinuous structures and non-terminal nodes corresponding to complex semantic units. The shared task has yielded improvements over the state-of-the-art baseline in all languages and settings. Full results can be found in the task’s website https://competitions.codalab.org/competitions/19160.

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Are You Convinced? Choosing the More Convincing Evidence with a Siamese Network
Martin Gleize | Eyal Shnarch | Leshem Choshen | Lena Dankin | Guy Moshkowich | Ranit Aharonov | Noam Slonim
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

With the advancement in argument detection, we suggest to pay more attention to the challenging task of identifying the more convincing arguments. Machines capable of responding and interacting with humans in helpful ways have become ubiquitous. We now expect them to discuss with us the more delicate questions in our world, and they should do so armed with effective arguments. But what makes an argument more persuasive? What will convince you? In this paper, we present a new data set, IBM-EviConv, of pairs of evidence labeled for convincingness, designed to be more challenging than existing alternatives. We also propose a Siamese neural network architecture shown to outperform several baselines on both a prior convincingness data set and our own. Finally, we provide insights into our experimental results and the various kinds of argumentative value our method is capable of detecting.

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The Language of Legal and Illegal Activity on the Darknet
Leshem Choshen | Dan Eldad | Daniel Hershcovich | Elior Sulem | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics

The non-indexed parts of the Internet (the Darknet) have become a haven for both legal and illegal anonymous activity. Given the magnitude of these networks, scalably monitoring their activity necessarily relies on automated tools, and notably on NLP tools. However, little is known about what characteristics texts communicated through the Darknet have, and how well do off-the-shelf NLP tools do on this domain. This paper tackles this gap and performs an in-depth investigation of the characteristics of legal and illegal text in the Darknet, comparing it to a clear net website with similar content as a control condition. Taking drugs-related websites as a test case, we find that texts for selling legal and illegal drugs have several linguistic characteristics that distinguish them from one another, as well as from the control condition, among them the distribution of POS tags, and the coverage of their named entities in Wikipedia.

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Automatically Extracting Challenge Sets for Non-Local Phenomena in Neural Machine Translation
Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 23rd Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning (CoNLL)

We show that the state-of-the-art Transformer MT model is not biased towards monotonic reordering (unlike previous recurrent neural network models), but that nevertheless, long-distance dependencies remain a challenge for the model. Since most dependencies are short-distance, common evaluation metrics will be little influenced by how well systems perform on them. We therefore propose an automatic approach for extracting challenge sets rich with long-distance dependencies, and argue that evaluation using this methodology provides a complementary perspective on system performance. To support our claim, we compile challenge sets for English-German and German-English, which are much larger than any previously released challenge set for MT. The extracted sets are large enough to allow reliable automatic evaluation, which makes the proposed approach a scalable and practical solution for evaluating MT performance on the long-tail of syntactic phenomena.

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Learning to combine Grammatical Error Corrections
Yoav Kantor | Yoav Katz | Leshem Choshen | Edo Cohen-Karlik | Naftali Liberman | Assaf Toledo | Amir Menczel | Noam Slonim
Proceedings of the Fourteenth Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications

The field of Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) has produced various systems to deal with focused phenomena or general text editing. We propose an automatic way to combine black-box systems. Our method automatically detects the strength of a system or the combination of several systems per error type, improving precision and recall while optimizing F-score directly. We show consistent improvement over the best standalone system in all the configurations tested. This approach also outperforms average ensembling of different RNN models with random initializations. In addition, we analyze the use of BERT for GEC - reporting promising results on this end. We also present a spellchecker created for this task which outperforms standard spellcheckers tested on the task of spellchecking. This paper describes a system submission to Building Educational Applications 2019 Shared Task: Grammatical Error Correction. Combining the output of top BEA 2019 shared task systems using our approach, currently holds the highest reported score in the open phase of the BEA 2019 shared task, improving F-0.5 score by 3.7 points over the best result reported.

2018

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Inherent Biases in Reference-based Evaluation for Grammatical Error Correction
Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

The prevalent use of too few references for evaluating text-to-text generation is known to bias estimates of their quality (henceforth, low coverage bias or LCB). This paper shows that overcoming LCB in Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) evaluation cannot be attained by re-scaling or by increasing the number of references in any feasible range, contrary to previous suggestions. This is due to the long-tailed distribution of valid corrections for a sentence. Concretely, we show that LCB incentivizes GEC systems to avoid correcting even when they can generate a valid correction. Consequently, existing systems obtain comparable or superior performance compared to humans, by making few but targeted changes to the input. Similar effects on Text Simplification further support our claims.

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Automatic Metric Validation for Grammatical Error Correction
Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)

Metric validation in Grammatical Error Correction (GEC) is currently done by observing the correlation between human and metric-induced rankings. However, such correlation studies are costly, methodologically troublesome, and suffer from low inter-rater agreement. We propose MAEGE, an automatic methodology for GEC metric validation, that overcomes many of the difficulties in the existing methodology. Experiments with MAEGE shed a new light on metric quality, showing for example that the standard M2 metric fares poorly on corpus-level ranking. Moreover, we use MAEGE to perform a detailed analysis of metric behavior, showing that some types of valid edits are consistently penalized by existing metrics.

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Will it Blend? Blending Weak and Strong Labeled Data in a Neural Network for Argumentation Mining
Eyal Shnarch | Carlos Alzate | Lena Dankin | Martin Gleize | Yufang Hou | Leshem Choshen | Ranit Aharonov | Noam Slonim
Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)

The process of obtaining high quality labeled data for natural language understanding tasks is often slow, error-prone, complicated and expensive. With the vast usage of neural networks, this issue becomes more notorious since these networks require a large amount of labeled data to produce satisfactory results. We propose a methodology to blend high quality but scarce strong labeled data with noisy but abundant weak labeled data during the training of neural networks. Experiments in the context of topic-dependent evidence detection with two forms of weak labeled data show the advantages of the blending scheme. In addition, we provide a manually annotated data set for the task of topic-dependent evidence detection. We believe that blending weak and strong labeled data is a general notion that may be applicable to many language understanding tasks, and can especially assist researchers who wish to train a network but have a small amount of high quality labeled data for their task of interest.

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Reference-less Measure of Faithfulness for Grammatical Error Correction
Leshem Choshen | Omri Abend
Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 2 (Short Papers)

We propose USim, a semantic measure for Grammatical Error Correction (that measures the semantic faithfulness of the output to the source, thereby complementing existing reference-less measures (RLMs) for measuring the output’s grammaticality. USim operates by comparing the semantic symbolic structure of the source and the correction, without relying on manually-curated references. Our experiments establish the validity of USim, by showing that the semantic structures can be consistently applied to ungrammatical text, that valid corrections obtain a high USim similarity score to the source, and that invalid corrections obtain a lower score.
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